R : Logiciel d'analyse de données.

	R DEVELOPMENT CORE TEAM (2008). R : A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria.
	LENTH, R.V. (2016). Least-squares means : the R package lsmeans. Journal of Statistical Software, 69 (1), 1-33. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Logiciel d'analyse de données

Raaijmakers Jeroen Gilles Willibrord ( ) : Psychologue cognitiviste américain d'origine néerlandaise. Avec Shiffrin, il a développé un modèle mathématique pour simuler le fonctionnement de la mémoire épisodique. Collaborateur de Pecher, Shiffrin, Wagenmakers et Zeelenberg.

	RAAIJMAKERS, J.G.W. & DE WEERT, C.M.M. (1975). Linear and nonlinear opponent color coding. Perception & Psychophysics, 18, 474-480. [PDF]
	RAAIJMAKERS, J.G.W. & SHIFFRIN, R.M. (1981). Search of associative memory. Psychological Review, 88, 93-134. [PDF]
	RAAIJMAKERS, J.G.W. & SHIFFRIN, R.M. (1992). Models for recall and recognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 205-234. [PDF]
	RAAIJMAKERS, J.G.W. (2003). Spacing and repetition effects in human memory : Application of the SAM model. Cognitive Science, 27, 431-452. [PDF]
	RAAIJMAKERS, J.G.W. & JAKAB, E. (2013). Is forgetting caused by inhibition ? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 205-209. [PDF]

Rabkin Judith Godwin ( ) : Psychologue américaine, spécialiste de l'étude des troubles mentaux et des conséquences sociales et psychologiques du sida.

	RABKIN, J.G. (1974). Public attitudes towards mental illness : a review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 77, 153-171.
	RABKIN, J.G. (1979). Criminal behavior of discharged mental patients : A critical appraisal of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 86 (1), 1-27.
	RABKIN, J.G. (1980). Stressful life events and schizophrenia : A review of the research literature. Psychological Bulletin, 87 (2), 408-425.
	RABKIN, J.G., McELHINEY, M., FERRANDO, S., VAN GORP, W. & LIN, S. (2004). Predictors of employment of men with HIV/AIDS : A longitudinal study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 72-78. [PDF]
	RABKIN, J.G. (2006). Placebo-controlled trial of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) for treatment of nonmajor depression in patients with HIV/AIDS. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 59-66. [PDF]

Raccrochage scolaire : Voir Décrochage scolaire et Retour à l'école. School dropout, student attrition.

Race : Le concept a trois usages distincts et non compatibles : a) De nos jours, ce mot ne renvoie à aucune réalité, biologique du moins. À l'origine, le mot terme servait à désigner un groupe d'individus ayant la même origine, donc en principe les mêmes caractéristiques. On dit souvent des individus de «même sang». Ces individus considèrent que leurs ressemblances, souvent physiques, sont déterminées par un facteurs - la «race» qui les distinguent fondamentalement des autres, à tous égards. Ensuite, avec la découverte du gène, on utilise le terme «race» pour identifier les personnes d'un groupe qui possèdent les mêmes gènes, le même patrimoine génétique (génome). Pour certains auteurs, cette parenté génétique détermine même le devenir individuel et collectif des individus : selon eux, la race influencerait largement la culture, les valeurs, les idéologies, et même la personnalité des individus. Cependant, la race n'est pas un concept scientifique. En effet, comme l'a montré Gould et Lewontin sur le plan génétique, il n'existe pas plus de différence entre un Noir et un Blanc, qu'entre deux Blancs ou deux Noirs. En ce sens, le terme «race» ou «groupe racisé» est à proscrire. On peut le remplacer par "ethnie" ou mieux encore par "culture ou sous-culture" qui rendent mieux l'idée d'un «fond commun, de partage d'une identité commune» sans recourir aux notions de «gène» ou de «même sang». Cependant, il s'agit tout de même d'une concept subjectif que les individus utilisent pour classer les autres en fonction de leur apparence (couleur de la peau, pigmentation, forme du visage, traits particuliers, etc.) ou comme explication intuitive pour comprendre le comportement d'autrui (théorie implicite de la personnalité) ou l'influence de la culture. De nos jours, c'est à ce titre - comme théorie implicite de l'apparence ou de la forme - que la psychologie utilise le concept de race. NDLR : En anglais, ce terme renvoie parfois au concept d'ethnie ou de communauté ethnique. Race, différences raciales et racisme. = race humaine, de la même origine, du même sang. Race. b) Par extension, on utilise le mot pour désigner les variations du phénotype sélectionné artificiellement chez certaines espèces animales domestiqué, comme le chat, le chien, la vache, etc. Il faut cependant préciser que l'usage de ce terme est contesté; certains auteurs suggèrent de le remplacer par «croissement», «lignage» ou «morphotype». c La police emploie également ce terme pour décrire succintement les caractéristiques faciales d'un suspect ou d'une personne disparue ou recherchée (signalement), notamment la couleur de sa peau. EX : Un homme de race blanche. Race, reconnaissance du visage et catégorisation. = apparence, couleur de la peau, élément du signalement policier. Race, skin color.

Caractéristiques des races
Différences raciales/ethniques	Discrimination raciale	Ségrégation raciale
	Racisme	Tension raciale

«Races»
Arabe		Indes
Afro-Américain (Noirs)	Caucasien (Blanc)	Japonais
Asiatique	Chinois	Latinos

	a
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Voir aussi Ethnie et Apparence
b
WEAVER, H. (2001). "Becoming in kind" : race, class, gender and nation in culture nation in cultures of dog rescue and dogfighting. American Quarterly, 63 (3), 689-709.
c
KNOWLES, J., PERSICO, N. & TODD, P. (2001). Racial bias in motor-vehicle searches : Theory and evidence. Journal of Political Economy, 109 (1), 203-229.
Voir aussi Police

Race(s)/Ethnie(s) (Différences) : Ensemble des différences constatées (= faits), examinées (= hypothèses) ou simplement suggérées (intutitions) entre les différences ethnies que l'on désigne aussi, à tort, sous le voacable de race. Différences, race et racisme. Racial differences, race differences, racial classification.

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	Voir aussi Différence, Différence culturelle, Biais de race et Race

Race & Pedagogy Journal : Revue scientifique qui consacre ses pages à l'éducation. Éditeur : University of Puget Sound.

BANDY, J., HARBIN, M.B. & THURBER, A. (2021). Teaching race and rac justice : Developing students’ cognitive and affective understanding. Race & Pedagogy Journal, 9 (1), 117-138. [PDF]

Race Ethnicity & Education : Revue scientifique qui consacre ses pages à l'éducation. Éditeur : Taylor & Francis.

CONNOLLY, P. (2000). What now for the contact hypothesis ? Towards a new research agenda.Race Ethnicity & Education, 3, 169-193.

Rachlin Howard C. (1935-2021) : Psychologue béhavioriste américain et chef de file de l'économie béhaviorale et expérimentale. Il étudie les comportements de décision (choix) et de contrôle chez l'humain et l'animal. Professeur de Mcdowell. Collaborateur de Ainslie, Battalio, Baum, Green, Gibbon, Herrnstein, Hineline, Kagel et Lacey.

	RACHLIN, H. & HINELINE, P.N. (1969). Escape and avoidance of shock by pigeons pecking a key. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12 (4), 533-538. [PDF]
	RACHLIN, H. & GREEN, L. (1972). Commitment, choice, and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 17 (1), 15-22. [PDF]
	RACHLIN, H., BATTALIO, R., KAGEL, J. & GREEN, L. (1981). Maximization theory in behavioral psychology. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 4 (3), 371-388.
	RACHLIN, H. (2002). Altruism and selfishness. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 25, 239-296. [PDF]
	RACHLIN, H. (2010). Pain and behavior after 25 years. Temas em Psicologia, 18 (2), 425-427. [PDF]

Rachman Stanley Jack (1934-2021) : Psychologue cognitivo-béhavioriste canadien, spécialisé dans l'étude des phobies, des obsessions et du trouble obsessif-compulsif. Professeur de Radomsky. Collaborateur de Marks, Seligman, Wilson et Wolpe.

	WOLPE, J. & RACHMAN, S. (1960). Psychoanalytic "evidence" : A critique based on Freud's case of Little Hans. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 130, 135-148.
	RACHMAN, S. (1964). Learning theory and child psychology : Therapeutic possibilities. In H.J. Eysenck (Ed.), Experiments in behaviour therapy. Oxford, England : Pergamon Press.
	RACHMAN, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear acquisition : a critical examination. Behavior Research & Therapy, 15, 375-387.
	RACHMAN, S. (1993). Obsessions, responsibility and guilt. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 31, 149-154.
	RACHMAN, S. (2009). Psychological treatment of anxiety : The evolution of behavior therapy and cognitive behavior therapy. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 97-119. [PDF]

Raciale (Discrimination) : Voir Discrimination raciale. Racial discrimination.

Raciales (Tensions) : Terme utilisé pour désigner un malaise (individuel) ou une situation sociale désagréable (collectif), voire anxiogène, entre des individus ou des groupes qui croient appartenir à des races différentes, situation susceptible de se transformer en conflit, parfois même en crise. Tension raciale et racisme. Racial tension.

	SEARS, D.O. & KINDER, D.R. (1971). Racial tension and voting in Los Angeles. In W.Z. Hirsch (Ed.), Los Angeles : Viability and prospects for metropolitan leadership. New York : Praeger.
	ARONSON, E., BLANEY, N., SIKES, J. STEPHAN, C. & SNAPP, M. (1979). Busing and racial tension : The jigsaw route to learning and liking. In V.J. Derlega & L.H. Janda (Eds.), Personal adjustment : Selected readings. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
	Voir aussi Tension, Racisme, Ségrégation, Attitude raciale, Discrimination raciale et Préjugé

Racine carrée : Square root.

	FREEMAN, M.F. & TUKEY, J.W. (1950). Transformations related to the angular and the square root. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 21, 607–611.

Racisme : Raciste : Il existe au moins deux formes de racisme : le racisme «viscéral» et le racisme «idéologique». Bien que ces deux formes s'expriment sensiblement de la même façon - que nous décrirons plus loin dans le texte - leur point d'origine est différent.

Le racisme viscéral ou affectif repose sur la haine ou la répulsion des individus d'une autre race (ou groupe/origine ethnique). Ces émotions ou sentiments, à la fois négatifs et intenses, naissent généralement lors d'expériences traumatisantes individuelles (agression, viol, enlèvement, etc) ou collectives (guerre, génocide, etc). On déteste alors ceux et celle qui nous ont fait mal ou qui cherchent à nous blesser (menace), quels qu'ils soient, mais encore plus si ceux-ci - «les autres = A» - sont culturellement ou physiquement différents de nous. Détester ceux ou celles qui nous ont fait mal n'est pas du racisme, mais une réaction normale. Cela devient du racisme lorsqu'on déteste tous les A, bref tous ceux qui ressemblent à ceux ou celles qui nous on fait mal. Ces différences - que l'on assimile à une race (couleur de la peau, forme du visage, morphologie typique, etc) servent alors de stimulus discriminatif aux comportements de discrinination sociale, de rejet, de mépriss, d'hostilité verbale et parfois même de violence à l'endroit de ceux et celles qui font partie de ces «autres», même si ces derniers ne nous ont jamais fait mal. Il s'agit d'une généralisation : Albert m'a donné un coup de poing, j'ai mal, Roger est un A, donc je déteste tous les A, incluant Artémise et Arnold que je ne connais même pas. Bref, la haine que l'on ressent à l'endoit d'un individu se généralise à tous son groupe «les autres».

La seconde forme - le racisme idéologique - a plutôt comme origine le sentiment de supériorité, d'un individu ou d'un groupe, à l'endroit d'individus qui appartiennent à une autre «race», considérée comme inférieure, généralement sur tous les plans et à tous égards, en raison de son origine biologique (les races dégénérées, le mauvais sang, les mutants, les tares génétiques, etc.) ou parce que cette «race» a subi au cours de l'histoire une forme d'oppression ou de domination sociale qui la rend faible, la plaçant ainsi en position de soumission (colonisation, déportation, défaite lors d'une guerre, dépendance économique ou militaire, mauvais sort, châtiment de dieu, aléas de l'histoire, etc). On se croit supérieurs aux vaincus, aux perdants de tout acabit, davantage si le vaincu est différent de nous, fait partie «des autres». Albert est un A, il a fait faillite, c'est un minable, donc je me sens supérieur à tous les A, incluant Artémise et Arnold que je ne connais même pas.

Il va de soi que ces deux formes de racisme peuvent coexister chez une même personne ou un même groupe; elles ne sont pas mutuellement exclusives. On peut sans doute affirmer que le nazisme est un exemple de biracisme à l'endroit des Roms et des Juifs. Quelque que soit la forme, le raciste considère que les inégalités de traitement eu égard à la race ou à l'ethnie sont normales, voire méritées : «Il peuvent me faire mal, ce sont des minables, qu'ils payent !». On sait pourtant que l'existence des «races» n'est pas scientifiquement avérée; elle repose essentiellement sur des croyances. Quoi qu'il en soit, pour celui ou celle qui en postule l'existence (perception), cette supériorité légitime l'exclusion et justifie les injustices et l'exploitation d'autrui.

Ces deux mécanismes sont à l'oeuvre, même si les différences entre «nous» et les «autres» sont faibles ou quasi-inexistence. On peut mépriser les femmes qui sont blondes («ce ne sont que des idiotes») ou craindre tous les hommes qui ont un tatouage («ils ont fait de la prison, ils sont dangereux»). La tendance à discriminer et donc à constituer des catégories est une fonction du vivant. La discrimination devient sociale lorsque la formation de ces catégories (nous, les autres) lèse autrui (les autres) ; l'injustice peut être réelle ou perçue.

Contrairement à la xénophobie, le racisme peut difficilement être effacé par les effets bénéfiques de l'éducation, de l'enculturation, de l'intégration ou même de l'assimilation. Le racisme individuel est parfois érigé en système. Les individus qui se croient supérieurs ou qui sont poussés par la haine de «l'autre» s'organisent en groupuscule, parfois en de grands mouvements sociaux (EX: KKK, mouvement bougaloo et autres groupes suprémacistes). Ces grands ensembles se forgent une idéologie et certains se donnent même les moyens d'action pour réaliser leurs idéaux racistes (pureté de la race, survie de l'espèce, un monde meilleur, les élus de dieu, etc). Ces groupes parviennent parfois à se constituer en parti politique et à prendre le pouvoir (EX: le National-Socialisme d'Hitler ou l'Afrikaner Party en Afrique du sud). Dans ces cas, le racisme devient collectif. Bonilla-Silva utilse le terme «système social racialisé» (racialized social systems) pour désigner cette forme de racisme collectif, implicite ou explicite. Ce racisme de groupe peut alors devenir systémique ou instiutionnel, si l'état le défend (sysémique) et le promeut publiquement (institutionnel).

Même si du point de vue de la victime, il n'y a pas toujours de différence tangible entre subir le racisme ou la discrimination (après tout, c'est toujours injuste et désagréable), il y a entre ces deux phénomènes une distinction très importante chez celui ou celle qui en est l'instigateur : le racisme nécessite un sentiment négatif intense - de haine ou de supériorité envers autrui - alors que la discrimination n'implique pas nécessairement une telle chose. Pour cette raison, on confond souvent l'un et l'autre. En recherche, on s'intéresse autant au racisme envers autrui qu'au racisme perçu. = haine collective, comportement raciste, tensions raciales. Racisme, race et xénophobie. Racism.

Racisme
Anti-racisme	Racisme symbolique	Racisme/Discrimination : Différences
Discrimination raciale	Racisme perçu/Discrimnation raciale perçu	Mesure et Évaluation du racisme/discrimination raciale
Racisme institutionnel	Racisme systémique

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JONES, J.M. (1999). Cultural racism : The intersection of race and culture in intergroup conflict. In D.A. Prentice & D.T. Miller (Eds.), Cultural divides : Understanding and overcoming group conflict (pp. 465-490). New York : Russell Sage Foundation.	CLAIR, M. & DENIS, S. (2015). Racism, sociology of. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 19, 857-863. [PDF]
STRETESKY, P. & LYNCH, M.J. (1999). Corporate environmental violence and racism. Crime, Law, & Social Change, 30, 163-184.	PARADIES, Y.C. (2016). Racism and health. In Reference module in biomedical sciences.
BHUGRA, D. & BHUI, K. (1999). Racism in psychiatry : paradigm lost, paradigm regained. International Review of Psychiatry, 11, 236-243.	BONILLA-SILVA, E. (2015). The structure of racism in color-blind,"post-racial" America. American Behavioral Scientist, 59 (11), 1358-1376.
BONILLA-SILVA, E. & LEWIS, A.E. (1999). The new racism : Racial structure in the United States, 1960s-1990s. In P. Wong (Ed.), Race, nation, and citizenship (pp. 55-100). Boulder, Colorado : Westview Press.	LABELLE, M. (2016). "Race" et racisme : réflexions sur le pouvoir des mots. Revue Directions, 7, 58-70.
	BONILLA-SILVA, E. (2017). Racism without racists : Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America. Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield.
	DiANGELO, R. (2018). White fragility : Why it's so hard for white people to talk about racism. Beacon Press.
CLARK, R., ANDERSON, N.B., CLARK, V.R. & WILLIAMS, D.R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans : A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54 (10), 805-816.	WILLIAMS, D.R., LAWRENCE, J.A. & DAVIS, B.A. (2019). Racism and health : Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 105-125.
	CRAMER, K. (2020). Understanding the role of racism in contemporary US public opinion. Annual Review of Political Science, 23, 153-169.
	DiANGELO, R. (2021). Nice racism : Gow progressive White people perpetuate racial harm. Beacon Press.
	BANAJI, M.R., FISKE, S.T. & MASSEY, D.S. (2021). Systemic racism : individuals and interactions, institutions and society. Cognitive Research : Principles Implications, 6 [82], 1-21.
Voir aussi Discrimination raciale, Ségrégation, Discrimination et Préjugé raciste

Racisme (Anti-) : Ensemble des programmes et des politiques de lutte contre de l'état le racisme. De nos jours, on utilise également le terme plour qualifier les positions de groupes ou d'Individus qui s'élèvent contre le racisme. Antiracism, anti-prejudice.

	CRENSHAW, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex : A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. In D. Kairys (Ed.), The politics of law : A progressive critique (pp. 195-217). Basic Books. [PDF]	CASE, K.A. (2007). Raising white privilege awareness and reducing racial prejudice : Assessing diversity course effectiveness. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 231-235.
	TAGUIEFF, P.-A. (1995). Les fins de l'antiracisme. Paris : Michalon.	PEDERSEN, A., ALY, A., HARTLEY, L. & McGARTY, C. (2009). An intervention to increase positive attitudes and address misconceptions about Australian Muslims : A call for education and open mindedness. The Australian Community Psychologist, 21 (2), 81-93.
	SPENCER, M.S. (1998). Reducing racism in schools : moving beyond rhetoric. Children & Schools, 20, 25–36	PEDERSEN, A., WALKER, I., PARADIES, Y. & GUERIN, B. (2011). How to cook rice : A review of ingredients for teaching anti-prejudice. Australian Psychologist, 46, 55-63. [PDF]
	JOHNSON, J.D. & LEECI, L. (2003). Assessing anti-White attitudes and predicting perceived racism : The Johnson-Lecci Scale. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 29 (3), 299-312.	NETO, Y. & PEDERSEN, A. (2013). No time like the present : Determinants of intentions to engage in bystander anti-racism on behalf of indigenous Australians. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 7 (1), 36-49.
	BOATRIGHT-HOROWITZ, S.L. (2005). Teaching antiracism in a large introductory psychology class : A course module and its evaluation. Journal of Black Studies, 36, 34-51.	STEWART, K., PEDERSEN, A. & PARADIES, Y. (2014), Its always good to help when possible BUT... : Obstacles to bystander anti-prejudice. The International Journal of Diversity in Education, 13 (3), 39-53.
		Voir aussi Préjugé et Racisme

Voici un exemple pour illustrer ces différences. Noir et Blanc travaillent pour X. Ils exécutent tout deux les mêmes tâches (=), avec le même niveau d'efficacité (=). Et pourtant Noir gagne $ et Blanc $$ (B>N). Noir est-il victime de racisme ? Réponse : Peut-être, mais pas nécessairement. Supposons que X déteste les Noirs. Ou se sent supérieurs à eux. Ces deux facteurs - sentiment de supériorité et haine - pourraient nous permettre d'établir que Noir est victime de racisme. En effet, pour distinguer le racisme de la discrimination raciale, il faut d'abord faire la démonstration que X est animé par un sentiment de supériorité (racisme idéologique) ou détestent les Noirs (racisme viscéral). Ensuite, il faut montrer que l'un ou l'autre de ce deux facteurs - ou les deux simultanément - est la cause du comportement qui consiste à offrir un salaire (comportement) plus élevé à B, lequel comportement produit alors une injustice (conséquence) envers N.

En l'absence de ces deux sentiments, Noir est-il néanmoins victime de racisme ? La réponse est non. Pourtant, Noir subit bel et bien une injustice (conséquence) ? C'est dans ce contexte que l'on a recours au concept de discrimination raciale; il faut alors montrer que Noir et Blanc exécutent les mêmes tâches (=) avec la même efficacité (=), mais que Noir gagne moins que Blanc (N<B). Par contre, si Noir est moins efficace que Blanc (N<B) ou s'il exécute des tâches plus faciles ou moins dangereuses que Blanc (N<B), alors il faudra convenir que la différence $/$$ s'explique autrement (pratique salariale différenciée). En clair, racisme et discrimination raciale se distinguent par la nature de leurs causes (propriété 1), et non seulement par les comportements (propriété 2) ou les conséquences (propriété 3) qu'ils engendrent. Bref, toute injustice n'est pas le résultat du racisme ou de la discrimination. En fait, en science, il existe une foule de facteurs qui peuvent expliquer les injustices sociales.

Il va de soi que, dans l'exemple ci-dessus, on peut substituer N à B. Précisons également qu'on ne sait pas si X est un B ou un N. Soulignons finalement que dans cet exemple, on définit ces réalités en vertu de trois propriétés : les causes, les comportements engendrés par ces causes et les conséquences de ces comportements. Certaines définitions se centrent uniquement sur les comportements ou les conséquences, ce qui, selon nous, ne permet pas de distinguer le racisme de la simple discrimination.

Maintenant, si X était un groupe, plutôt qu'un individu, pourrait-on affirmer que ce groupe est raciste ou qu'il pratique une forme de discrimination raciale envers certains de ses membres ? Bref, peut-on utiliser ces concepts pour décrire les groupes ou seulement les individus ? Une organisation est-elle raciste ? Un état peut-il faire preuve de discrimination raciale ? Peut-on attribuer à un groupe les propriétés que l'on utilise pour décrire les phénomènes individuels ? Certes, on peut qualifier un individu d'agressif. Peut-on en dire autant de sa famille ou de son entreprise ? Si oui, faut-il que tous les individus de ce groupe soient racistes pour que l'on puisse affirmer que ce groupe - tout entier - est bel et bien raciste ? Ou seulement ses dirigeants ? Ses leaders ? Son personnel ? Combien faut-il de racistes dans un groupe avant d'affirmer ue ce groupe est raciste ?

En science, on utilise souvent le mot «systémique» pour désigner les propriétés émergentes d'un ensemble; c-à-d les caractéristiques d'un ensemble qui n'appartiennent pas en propre à ses éléments. Autrement dit, un groupe - qui est un ensemble - pourrait être qualifié de raciste ou d'agressif même si tous ses membres (éléments) ne sont pas racistes ou agressifs. Donc si un groupe est qualifié de nazi, tous ces membres ne sont pas forcément des nazis. Bien sûr, si le discours officiel du groupe est haineux, on peut affirmer que les dirigeant du groupe, qui cautionnent officiellement ou officieusement ce discours, le sont sûrement, surtout s'ils décident de mieux payer les employés qui souscrivent à ce discours. Il s'agit alors de racisme systémique car le système produit des injustices même si tous les membres ne participent pas volontairement à ce résultat. Mais un groupe peut produire des conséquences malheureuses pour certains de ses membres, sans que les dirigeants soient conscients ou responsables de cet effet. Dans ce cas, il s'agit plutôt de discrimination systémique. Finalement, ajoutons qu'un groupe peut très bien décider formellement que certains de ses membres seront traités mieux que d'autres en raison de leur compétence, de leurs responsabilités ou des risques qu'ils encourent lors de l'exécution de leurs tâches (politique salariale différenciée).

Racisme/Discrimination raciale (Mesures/Évaluations) : Ensemble des critères de diagnostic, des tests et des outils de collecte de données qui permettent d'évaluer et de mesurer le racisme et la discrimination raciale. Perceived racism scale, perceived ethnic discrimination, measuring racial discrimination, self-reported racism, measure of indigenous racism experiencer, perceived race/ethnic-based discrimination, explicit and implicit measures of racial discrimination, racism scale.

	McCONAHAY, J.B., HARDEE, B.B. & BATTS, V. (1981). Has racism declined in America ? It depends on who is asking and what is asked. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25, 563–579.	BRONDOLO, E., KELLY, K.P., COAKLEY, V., GORDON, T., THOMPSON, S., LEVY, E, CASSELLS, A., TOBIN, J.N., SWEENEY, M. & CONTRADA, R.J. (2005). The perceived ethnic discrimination questionnaire : development and preliminary validation of a community version. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35 (2), 335-365.
	McCONAHAY, J.B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale. In J.F. Dovidio & S.L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 91-124). Academic Press : San Diego.	KRIEGER, N., SMITH, K., NAISHADHAM, D., HARTMAN, C. & BARBEAU, E.M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination : Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61 (7), 1576-1596.
	GREEN, N.L. (1995). Development of the perceptions of racism scale. Image : the Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27, 141-146.
	MCNEILLY, M.D., ANDERSON, N.B., ARMSTEAD, C.A., CLARK, R., CORBETT, M., ROBINSON, E.L. & LEPISTO, E.M. (1996). The Perceived Racism Scale : A multidimensional assessment of the experience of White racism among African Americans. Ethnicity & Disease, 6, 154-166.
	HARRELL, S.P. (1997). Development and initial validation of scales to measure racism-related stress. In Proceedings of the Sixth Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action. Columbia, SC : Society for Community Research and Action.
	UTSEY, S.O. (1998). Assessing the stressful effects of racism : A review of instrumentation. Journal of Black Psychology, 24, 269-288.	PARADIES, Y.C. (2006). A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35 (3), 888-901.
	UTSEY, S.O. & PONTEROTTO, J.G. (1999). Further factorial validity assessment of scores on the Quick Discrimination Index. Educational & Psychological Measurement, 59, 325-335.	BRONDOLO, E., BRADY, N., THOMPSON, S., TOBIN, J.N., CASSELLS, A., SWEENEY, M., McFARLANE, D. & CONTRADA, R.J. (2007). Perceived racism and negative affect : Analyses of trait and state measures of affect in a community sample. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 27 (2), 150-173. [PDF]
	BROWN, T.N. (2001). Measuring self-perceived racial and ethnic discrimination in social surveys. Sociological Spectrum, 21, 377-392.	PARADIES, Y.C. & CUNNINGHAM, J. (2008). Development and validation of the measure of indigenous racism experiencers (MIRE). International Journal for Equity in Health, 7, 9. [PDF]
	OLSON, M.A. & FAZIO, R.H. (2003). Relations between implicit measures of racial prejudice : What are we measuring ? Psychological Science, 14, 636-639.	KRESSIN, N.R., RAYMOND, K.M. & MANZE, M. (2008). A review of measures of perceived race/ethnic-based discrimination in health care. Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Underserved, 19, 697-730.
	BRONDOLO, E., RIEPPI, R., KELLY, K.P. & GERIN, W. (2003). Perceived racism and blood pressure : a review of the literature and conceptual and methodological critique. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 55-65.
	BLANK, R.M., DABAY, M. & CITRO, C.F. (Eds.) (2004). Measuring racial discrimination : Panel on methods for assessing discrimination. Washington : The National Academies Press.	KRIEGER, N. CARNEY, D., LANCASTER, K., WATERMAN, P.D., KOSHELEVA, A. & BANAJI, M. (2010). Combining explicit and implicit measures of racial discrimination in health research. American Journal of Public Health, 100 (8), 1485-1492. [PDF]
	NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (2004). Measuring racial discrimination. Washington, DC : National Academies Press.	BASTOS, J.L., CELESTE, R.K., FAERSTEIN, E. & BARROS, A.J.D. (2010). Racial discrimination and health : A systematic review of scales with a focus on their psychometric properties. Social Science & Medicine, 70, 1091-1099. [PDF]
		ATKINS, R. (2014). Instruments measuring perceived racism/racial discrimination : review and critique of factor analytic techniques. International Journal of Health Services, 44 (4), 711-734. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Racisme et Discrimination raciale

Racisme institutionnel : Institutionnel racism.

	WILLIAMS, J. (1985). Redefining institutional racism. Ethnic & Racial Studies, 8 (3), 323-349.
		Voir aussi Racisme

Racisme perçu : Discrimination raciale perçue : Racisme perçu mais qui ne correspond forcément à l la réalité. Perceived racial discrimination, self-reported racism.

	MCNEILLY, M.D., ANDERSON, N.B., ARMSTEAD, C.A., CLARK, R., CORBETT, M., ROBINSON, E.L. & LEPISTO, E.M. (1996). The Perceived Racism Scale : A multidimensional assessment of the experience of White racism among African Americans. Ethnicity & Disease, 6, 154-166.	PARADIES, Y. (2006). A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35 (3), 888-901.
		BORRELL, L.N., KIEFE, C.I., WILLIAMS, D.R., DIEZ-ROUX, A.V. & GORDON-LARSEN, P. (2006). Self-reported health, perceived racial discrimination, and skin color in African Americans in the CARDIA study. Social Science & Medicine, 63 (6), 1415-1427.
		HUNT, M.O., WISE, L.A., JIPGUEP, M.-C., COZIER, Y.C. & ROSENBERG, L. (2007). Neighborhood racial composition and perceptions of racial discrimination : evidence from the Black Women's Health Study. Social Psychology Quarterly, 70 (3), 272-289.
		KRESSIN, N.R., RAYMOND, K.M. & MANZE, M. (2008). A review of measures of perceived race/ethnic-based discrimination in health care. Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Underserved, 19, 697-730.
		RODRIGUEZ, M.S. (2008). Perceived discrimination : multiple measures and the intersections of race and gender. Journal of Modern African Studies, 12 (4), 348-365.
		BYNUM, M.S., BEST, C., BARNES, S.L. & BURTON, E.T. (2008). Private regard, identity protection and perceived racism among African American males. Journal of African American Studies, 12, 142-155.
	NOH, S., BEISER, M., KASPAR V., HOU, F. & RUMMENS, J. (1999). Perceived racial discrimination, depression, and coping : A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 40 (3), 193-207.	PASCOE, E.A, SMART RICHMAN, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health : a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135 (4), 531-554.
		TOBLER, A.L., MALDONADO-MOLINA, M.M., STARAS, S.A., O'MARA, R.J., LIVINGSTON, M.D. & KOMRO, K.A. (2013). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, problem behaviors, and mental health among minority urban youth. Ethnicity & Health, 18, 337-349.
		PRIEST, N., PARADIES Y., TRENERRY, B., TRUONG, M., KARLSEN, S. & KELLY, Y. (2013). A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine, 95, 115-127.
	FINCH, B.K., KOLODY, B., VEGA, W.A. (2000). Perceived discrimination and depression among Mexican-origin adults in California. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 41, 295-313.	ATKINS, R. (2014). Instruments measuring perceived racism/racial discrimination : review and critique of factor analytic techniques. International Journal of Health Services, 44 (4), 711-734. [PDF]
	CLARK, R. (2000). Perceptions of interethnic group racism predict increased vascular reactivity to a laboratory challenge in college women.Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22 (3), 214-222.	DOLEZSAR, C., MCGRATH, J., HERZIG, A. & MILLER S. (2014). Perceived racial discrimination and hypertension: A comprehensive systematic review. Health Psychology, 33 (1), 20–34.
	BROWN, T.N. (2001). Measuring self-perceived racial and ethnic discrimination in social surveys. Sociological Spectrum, 21, 377-392.	LEWIS, T.L., COGBURN, C.D. & WILLIAMS, D.R. (2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health : scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 407-440.
	CLARK, R. (2003). Self-reported racism and social support predict blood pressure reactivity in Blacks. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25 (2), 127-136.	STEPANIKOVA, I. & OATES, G.R. (2017). Perceived discrimination and privilege in health care : the role of socioeconomic status and race. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52 (S1), 86-94.
	JOHNSON, J.D. & LEECI, L. (2003). Assessing anti-White attitudes and predicting perceived racism : The Johnson-Lecci Scale. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 29 (3), 299-312.	NAGAT, J.M., GANSON, K.T., SAJJAD, O.M., BENABOU, S.E. & BIBBINS-DOMINGO, K. (2021). Prevalence of perceived racism and discrimination among US children aged 10 and 11 years : the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. JAMA Pediatrics, 175, 861-863.
	Voir aussi Discrimination raciale et Racisme

Racisme symbolique : Symbolic racism.

	WEIGEL, R.H. & HOWES, P.W. (1985). Conceptions of racial prejudice : Symbolic racism reconsidered. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 117-138.
	SEARS, D.O. (1988). Symbolic racism. In P.A. Katz & D.A. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism (pp. 53-84). New York : Plenum.
	SEARS, D.O. (1998). Racism and politics in the United States. In J.L. Eberhardt & S.T. Fiske (Eds.), Confronting racism : The problem and the response (pp. 76-100). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
	HENRY, P. & SEARS, D. (2002). The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political Psychology, 23 (2), 253-283.
	SEARS, D.O. & HENRY, P.J. (2003). The origins of symbolic racism. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 85, 259-275.
	TARMAN C. & SEARS, D.O. (2005). The conceptualization and measurement of symbolic racism. The Journal of Politics, 67, 731-761.
	SEARS, D.O. & HENRY, P.J. (2005). Over thirty years later : A contemporary look at symbolic racism. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 37, pp. 95-150). San Diego : Elsevier Academic Press.
		Voir aussi Discrimination raciale et Racisme

Racisme systémique : Forme de racisme qui ne dépend pas des individus, de leur volonté, mais plutôt du sytème auquel participe les individus. Ce système peut être une classe d'élèves, une entreprise, une société toute entière. Ce racisme s'exprime formellement (loi, institution, système scolaire, emploi, etc) et volontairement (discours et propagande haineuse) au sein de ces groupes contre certains de ses membres ou sous-groupes de membres dans le but, souvent avoué, de favoriser certains individus qui se considèrent comme "supérieurs" au détriment d'autres (qui sont alors lésés), et même dans certains cas d'exploiter systématiquement ceux que l'on considèrement comme "inférieurs". EX : L'Allemagne nazie contre les Roms ou le regime de l'Apartheid en Afrique du sud.

Le racisme systémique est une propriété émergente du groupe ou de l'organisation, et non des individus, ce qui signifie qu'il peut s'exprimer concrètement au sein des organisations (système), même si plusieurs individus au sein de ces organisations, voire la majorité d'entre eux, ne sont pas racistes ou le combattent ouvertement. Autrement dit, les membres d'un groupes peuvent agir de manière raciste contre leur volonté, sans s'en rendre compte. On dira alors que système est "plus fort" que les individus qui le composent. Le gouvernement nazi est un bel exemple d'un système qui a poussé des individus non-racistes à commettre des geste racistes, contre leur gré. = haine érigée en système, racisme institutionnel, racisme organisationnel. *discrimination systémique. Institutional racism, structural racism, color-blind racism.

	ALBERT, W.E. (1977). The white magic of systemic racism. Crisis, 85 (9), 295-308.
	BONILLA-SILVA, E. (1997). Rethinking racism : Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62 (3), 465-480.
	FEAGIN, J.R. (2006). Systemic racism : A theory of oppression. Routledge.
	DE PLETVITZ, l. (2007). Systemic racism: The hidden barrier to educational success for indigenous school students. Australian Journal of Education, 51 (1), 54-71.
	BAILEY, Z.D., KRIEGER, N., AGÉNOR, M., GRAVES, J., LINOS, N. & BASSETT, M.T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA : evidence and interventions. Lancet, 389 (10077), 1453-1463.
	BANAJI, M.R., FISKE, S.T. & MASSEY, D.S. (2021). Systemic racism : individuals and interactions, institutions and society. Cognitive Research : Principles & Implications, 6 [82], 1-21.
		Voir Ségrégation, Ostracisme et Racisme

Radesky Jenny S. ( ) : Médecin et pédiatre américaine, spécialisée dans l'étude des relations parents-enfants et notamment du rôle des technologies comme les écrans (téléphone, ordinateur, tablette, TV). Collaborateur de McDaniel.

	RADESKY, J., KISTIN, C.J., ZUCKERMAN, B., NITZBERG, K., GROSS, J., KAPLAN-SANOFF, M. & SILVERSTEIN, M. (2014). Patterns of mobile device use by caregivers and children during meals in fast food restaurants. Pediatrics, 133 (4), 843-849.
	RADESKY, J.S., MILLER, A.L., ROSENBLUM, K.L., APPUGLIESE, D., ACIROTI, N. & LUMENG, J.C. (2015). Maternal mobile device use during a structured parent' child interaction task. Academic Pediatrics, 15 (2), 238-244.
	RADESKY, J.S. & CHRISTAKIS, D.A. (2016). Increased screen time : Implications for early childhood development and behavior. Pediatric Clinics, 63 (5), 827-839.
	RADESKY, J.S. KISITIN, C., EISENBERG, S., GROSS, J., BLOCK, G., ZUCKERMAN, B. & SILVERSTEIN, M. (2016). Parent perspectives on their mobile technology use : The excitement and exhaustion of parenting while connected. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 37 (9), 694-701.
	RADESKY, J.S. LEUNG, C., APPUGLIESE, D., MILLER, A.L., LUMENG, J.C. & ROSENBLUM, K.L. (2018). Maternal mental representations of the child and mobile phone use during parent' child mealtimes. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 39, 310-317.

Radford Benjamin (1970-) : Sceptique américain et spécialiste de l'étude des phénomènes paranormaux, notamment des monstres. Il est membre du Comittee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal.

	RADFORD, B. (2003). Media mythmakers : How journalists, activists, and advertisers mislead us. Amherst, N.Y. : Prometheus Books.
	RADFORD, B. & NICKELL, J. (2006). Lake monster mysteries : Investigating the world's most elusive creatures. Lexington, Kentucky : University Press of Kentucky.
	RADFORD, B. (2010). Scientific paranormal investigation : How to solve unexplained mysteries. Rhombus Publishing Company.
	RADFORD, B. (2011). Tracking the Chupacabra : The vampire beast in fact, fiction, and folklore, Mexico : University of New Mexico Press.
	RADFORD, B. (2014). Mysterious New Mexico : Miracles, magic, and monsters in the Land of Enchantment. University of New Mexico Press.

Radiation : Radiation.

	GARCIA, J., KIMELDORF, D.J. & KOELLING, R.A. (1955). Conditioned aversion to saccharin resulting from exposure to gamma radiation. Science, 122, 157-158. [PDF]	GARCIA, J. & KIMELDORF, D.J. (1960). Conditioned avoidance behavior induced by low-dose neutron exposure. Nature, 185, 261-262. [PDF]
	GARCIA, J., KIMELDORF, D.J. & HUNT, E.L. (1956). Conditioned responses to manipulative procedures resulting from exposure to gamma radiation. Radiation Research, 5 (1), 79-87. [PDF]	KIMELDORF, D.J., GARCIA, J. & RUBADEAU, D.O. (1960). Radiation-induced conditioned avoidance behavior in rats, mice, and cats. Radiation Research, 12, 710-718. [PDF]
	GARCIA, J., KIMELDORF, D.J., HUNT, E.L. & DAVIES, B.P. (1956). Food and water consumption of rats during exposure to gamma radiation. Radiation Research, 4, 33-41. [PDF]	GARCIA, J. & KIMELDORF, D.J. (1960). Some factors which influence radiation-conditioned behavior of rats. Radiation Research, 12, 719-727. [PDF]
	GARCIA, J. & KIMELDORF, D.J. (1957). Temporal relationship within the conditioning of a saccharine aversion through radiation exposure. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 50, 180-183. [PDF]	GARCIA, J. & KOELLING, R.A. (1967). A comparison of aversions produced by x-rays, drugs and toxins. Radiation Research, 7 (S), 439-460.
	GARCIA, J. & KIMELDORF, D.J. (1958). The effect of ophthalmectomy upon responses of the rat to radiation and taste stimuli. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 51, 288-291. [PDF]	BARKER, L.M. & SMITH, J.C. (1974). A comparison of taste aversions induced by radiation and lithium chloride in CS-US and US-CS paradigms. Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 87 (4), 644-654.
		FLYNN, J., BURNS, W., MERTZ, C.K. & SLOVIC, P. (1992). Trust as a determinant of opposition to a high-level radioactive waste facility : Analysis of a structural model. Risk Analysis, 12 (3), 417-429.
	Voir aussi Conditionnement répondant, Radon et Nucléaire

Radical : Radicaliser : Le terme a deux acceptions : a) En science, il désigne un raisonnement ou une théorie qui s'appuie sur des arguments qui concernent la nature essentielle et fondamentale des choses, les causes premières; bref le mot renvoie à la racine (=radical) du phénomène que l'on cherche à expliquer. = racine ou origines des choses, nature profonde. EX: On qualifie de radical le béhaviorisme de Skinner. b) En politique, on qualifie de radicale une doctrine ou une idée qui impose des choix déchirants, engagent des actions décisives, qui tranchent avec les façons habituelles de faire les choses. En ce sens, radical s'oppose à conservateur. NDLR : Le mot n'est pas synonyme de violence, ni même d'extrême. Toutefois, il va de soi qu'une action décisive peut entraîner, du point de celui qui s'apprête à la commettre, de la violence, laquelle sera alors interprétée comme un geste «extrême» du point de vue de celui qui la subit. = extrême, draconien, pur et dur. /Extrême.

	a
	ROZEBOOM, W.W. (1977). Metathink - A radical alternative. Canadian Psychological Review/Psychologie Canadienne, 18 (3), 197-203. [PDF]
	RUBIN, G.S. (1992). Thinking sex : Notes for a radical theory of the politics of sexuality. In C.S. Vance (Ed.), Pleasure and danger : Exploring female sexuality (pp. 267-293). London : Pandora. [PDF]
	BAUM, W.M. (2011). What is radical behaviorism ? A review of Jay Moore's conceptual foundations of radical behaviorism. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 95 (1), 119-126. [PDF]
	MacLEOD, C.M. & RISKO, E.F. (2017). Radical cognitivism ? Distinguishing behavior from thought. Journal of Applied Research in Memory & Cognition, 6, 22-26.
	Voir aussi Béhaviorisme radical
	b
	McCAULEY C. & MOSKALENKO, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization : Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism & Political Violence, 20, 415-433.
	HORGAN, J. (2009). Deradicalization or disengagement ? A process in need of clarity and a counterterrorism initiative in need of evaluation Revista de Psicología Social, 24, 291-298.
	SEDGWICK, M. (2010). The concept of radicalization as a source of confusion. Terrorism & Political Violence, 22, 479-494.
	HORGAN, J. (2010). Rehabilitating the terrorists ? Challenges in assessing the effectiveness of de-radicalization programs. Terrorism & Political Violence, 22, 267-291. [PDF]
	KRUGLANSKI, A.W., GELFAND, M.J., BÉLANGER, J.J., SHEVELAND, A., HETIARACHCHI. M. & GUNARATNA, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization : How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Advances in Political Psychology, 35 (S1), 69-93. [PDF] + [PDF]
	STANKOV, L., KNEZEVIC, G., SAUCIER, G., RADOVIC, B. & MILOVANOVIC, B. (2018). Militant extremist mindset and the assessment of radicalization in the general population. Journal of Individual Differences, 39 (2), 88-98.
	Voir aussi Violence, Terrorisme et Pouvoir extrême

Radical Pedagogy : Revue scientifique qui consacre ses pages à la critique de la pédagogie.

FITZSIMONS, P. (2002). Neoliberalism and education : the autonomous chooser. Radical Pedagogy, 4 (2). [LIRE]

Radical Psychology : Revue scientifique qui consacre ses pages à la critique de la psychologie.

KRAUSE, R. (2005). Depression, antidepressants and an examination of epidemiological changes. Radical Psychology, 4 (1). [LIRE]

Radio : Média. = audio. Radio.

	CANTRIL, H. & ALLPORT, G.W. (1935). The psychology of radio. New York : Harper and Brothers.	STAMM, M. (2010). Paul Lazarsfeld's radio and the printed page : A critical reappraisal. American Journalism, 27 (4), 37-58.
	CANTRIL, H. (1940). Invasion from Mars : A study in the psychology of panic. Princeton University Press. [PDF]	BERNIER, M.-F. (N-D). "Radio-Gesca" est-il un phénomène réel ? Chaire de recherche sur la francophonie canadienne en communication, spécialisée en éthique du journalisme. [PDF]
	LAZARSFELD, P.F. (1940). Radio and the printed page. New York, NY : Duell, Sloan & Pearce.	POOLEY, J.D. & SOCOLOW, M.J. (2013). Checking Up on The Invasion from Mars : Hadley Cantril, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and the making of a misremembered classic. International Journal of Communication, 7, 1920-1948. [PDF]
	BARROW, L.C & WESTLEY, B.H. (1959). Comparative teaching effectiveness of radio and television. Audio Visual Communication Review, 7, 14-23.
	BEAGLES-ROOS, J. & GAT, I.J. (1983). Specific impact of radio and television on children's story comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 128-137.
	RUNCO, M.A. & PEZDEK, K. (1984). The effect of radio and television on children's creativity. Human Communications Research, 11, 109-120.
	PEZDEK, K., LEHRER, A. & SIMON, S. (1984). The relationship between reading and cognitive processing of television and radio. Child Development, 55 (6), 2072-2082.
	HAYES, D.S., KELLY, S.B. & MANDEL, M. (1986). Media differences in children's story synopses : Radio and television contrasted. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 341-346.
	GREENFIELD, P.M. & BEAGLES-ROOS, J. (1988). Radio vs. television : Their cognitive impact on children of different socioeconomic and ethnic groups. Journal of Communication, 38 (2), 71-92.
	REYNER, L.A. & HORNE, J.A. (1998). Evaluation "in-car" countermeasures to sleepiness : cold air and radio. Sleep, 21 (1), 46-50. [PDF]	BOUCHARD, S. (2014). La radio poubelle : le populisme de droite en action. Nouveaux Cahier du Socialisme, 11, 104-113.
		Voir aussi Média et Télévision

Radiologie : Technique médicale qui utilise l'imagerie par résonance magnétique pour déceler et observer certaines pathologies.

	GUNDERMAN, R. & WILLING, S. (2006). Motivation in radiology : Implications for leadership. Radiology, 225 (1), 1-5. [PDF]
	KALAR, T. & WRIGHT, D.L. (2006). Leadership theory and motivation of medical imaging employees. Radiology Management, 20-27. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Imagerie par résonance magnétique

Rado Sàndor (Kisvárda 1890-1972 New York) : Psychanalyste américain, d'origine hongroise, et membre fondateur de l'Institut de Psychanalyse de New York. Analysé par Abraham. Analyste de Fenichel, Hartmann et Reich.

	RADO, S. (1940). A critical examination of the concept of bisexuality. Psychosomatic Medicine, 2, 459-467.
	RADO, S. (1956). Psychoanalysis of behavior I. New York : Grune and Stratton.
	RADO, S. (1962). Psychoanalysis of behavior II. New York : Grune and Stratton.
	RADO, S. (1969). Adaptational psychodynamics; motivation and control. New York :Science House.
	SALZMAN, L. (1973). Obituary : Dr. Sandor Rado. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 1, 101-103.
	ROAZEN, P. & SWERDLOFF, B. (1995). Heresy : Sándor Radó and the psychoanalytic movement. New Jersey : Aronson.
	TONTONOZ, M. (2017). Sandor Rado, American psychoanalysis, and the question of bisexuality. History of Psychology, 20 (3), 263–289.

Radomsky Adam S. ( ) : Psychologue cognitivo-béhavioriste québécois, spécialisé dans l'étude des phobies, de l'anxiété et des comportements de vérification compulsive. Il enseigne à l'Université de Concordia. Étudiant de Rachman. Collaborateur de Freeston.

	RADOMSKY, A.S. & RACHMAN, S. (1999). Memory bias in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Behaviour Research & Therapy, 37 (7), 605-618.
	RADOMSKY, A.S., RACHMAN, S. & HAMMOND, D. (2001). Memory bias, confidence and responsibility in compulsive checking. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 39 (7), 813-822.
	RADOMSKY, A.S., GILCHRIST, P.T. & DUSSAULT, D. (2006). Repeated checking really does cause memory distrust. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 44 (2), 305-316.
	RACHMAN, S., RADOMSKY, A.S. & SHAFRAN, S. (2008). Safety behaviour : A reconsideration. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 46 (2), 163-173.
	RADOMSKY, A.S., SHAFRAN, S. & RACHMAN, S. (2010). Cognitive-behavior therapy fo rcompulsive checking in OCD . Cognitive & Behavioral Practice, 17, 119-131. [PDF]

Radon : Radon.

	WEINSTEIN, N.D. SANDMAN, P.M. & ROBERTS, N.E. (1990). Determinants of self-protective behavior : Home radon testing. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 783-801.
	DOYLE, J.K., MCCLELLAND, G. H. & SCHULZE, W.D. (1991). Protective responses to household risk : A case study of radon mitigation. Risk Analysis, 11, 121-134.
	WEINSTEIN, N.D. SANDMAN, P.M. & ROBERTS, N.E. (1991). Perceived susceptibility and self-protective behavior : A field experiment to encourage home radon testing. Health Psychology, 10, 25-33.
	WEINSTEIN, N.D. & SANDMAN, P.M. (1992). A model of the precaution adoption process : Evidence from home radon testing. Health Psychology, 11, 170-180.
		Voir aussi Maladie, Radiation et Risque

Radvansky Gabriel A. ( ) : Psychologue cognitiviste américain, spécialisé dans l'étude de la mémoire et du vieillisement. Étudiant de Zacks et Collaborateur de Hasher, Szpunar, Wyer et Zwaan.

	RADVANSKY, G.A., GERARD, L.D., ZACKS, R.T. & HASHER, L. (1990). Younger and older adults' use of mental models as representations for text materials. Psychology & Aging, 5 (2), 209-214. [PDF]
	RADVANSKY, G.A. & ZACKS, T.R. (1991). Mental models and the fan effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 17, 940-953. [PDF]
	RADVANSKY, G.A., LYNCHARD, N.A. & Von HIPPEL, W. (2009). Stereotype activation, inhibition, and aging. Aging, Neuropsychology, & Cognition, 16, 22-32. [PDF]
	RADVANSKY, G.A., COPELAND, D.E. & Von HIPPEL, W. (2010). Stereotype activation, inhibition, and aging. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 51-60. [PDF]
	RADVANSKY, G.A. (2012). Across the event horizon. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 269-272. [PDF]

Rage : Forte colère, qui s'accompagne généralement de comportements agressifs, exagéré ou même violents involontaires et incontrôlés. ( ): Rage alimentaire, rage au volant. Rage.

Types de rage
Rage (En général)	Rage alimentaire	Rage au volant

	CANNON, W.B. (1918). Bodily changes. In pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York/London : Appleton-Century-Crofts.
	BARD, P. (1928). A diencephalic mechanism for the expression of rage with special reference to the sympathetic nervous system. American Journal of Physiology, 84, 490-515.
	GOLDBERG, J.H., LERNER, J.S. & TETLOCK, P.E. (1999). Rage and reason : The psychology of the intuitive prosecutor. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 781-795.
		Voir aussi Comportements agressifs, Violence  et Colère

Rage alimentaire : Voir Hyperphagie. Binge Eating Disorder, binge eating.

Rage au volant : Voir Colère au volant. Driving anger, driver aggression.

Ragins Belle Rose ( ) : Psychologue organisationelle américaine et spécialiste de l'étude du mentorat.

	RAGINS, B.R. (1989). Power and gender congruency effects in evaluations of male and female leaders. Journal of Management, 15 (1), 65-76.
	RAGINS, B.R. & COTTON, J. (1993). Gender and willingness to mentor in organizations. Journal of Management, 19 (1), 97-111.
	RAGINS, B.R. & SCANDURA, T.A. (1999). Burden or blessing ? Expected costs and benefits of being a mentor. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 493-509.
	RAGINS, B.R. & CORNWELL, J.M. (2001). Pink triangles : Antecedents and consequences of workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (6), 1244-1261.
	RAGINS, B.R. & WINKEL, D. (2011). Gender, emotion and power in work relationships. Human Resource Management Review, 21 (4), 377-393.

Rahim/Rahman
Afzalur M. Rahim	Qazi Rahman

Rahim M. Afzalur ( ) : Psychologue industriel et organisationnel et spécialiste de l'étude des conflits et de leur résolution.

	RAHIM, M.A. & BONOMA, T.V. (1979). Managing organizational conflict : A model for diagnosis and intervention. Psychological Reports, 44 (S3), 1323-1344.
	RAHIM, M.A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26 (2), 368-376. [PDF]
	RAHIM, M.A. & PSENICKAC, C. (1984). Comparison of reliability and validity of unweighted and factor scales. Psychological Reports, 55 (2), 439-445.
	RAHIM, M.A. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis of the styles of handling interpersonal conflict : first-order factor model and its invariance across groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80 (1), 122-132.
	RAHIM, M.A. (2002). Toward a theory of managing organizational conflict. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 13, 206-235.

Rahman Qazi ( ) : Neuropsychologue anglais et spécialiste de l'orientation sexuelle. Collaborateur de Dickins, Loehlin, Lippa et Wilson.

	RAHMAN, Q., WILSON, G.D. & ABRAHAMS, S. (2003). Sexual orientation related differences in spatial memory. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 376-383.
	RAHMAN, Q., ABRAHAMS, S. & WILSON, G.D. (2003). Sexual orientation related differences in verbal fluency. Neuropsychology, 17, 240-246.
	RAHMAN, Q., WILSON, G.D. & ABRAHAMS, S. (2004). Biosocial factors, sexual orientation and neurocognitive functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 867-881.
	RAHMAN, Q. (2005). Review The neurodevelopment of human sexual orientation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 1057-1066. [PDF]
	RAHMAN, Q. & WILSON, G.D. (2005). Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio : evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability ? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28 (3), 288-303.

Raine/Rainey
Adrian Raine	David W. Rainey

Raine Adrian (Darlington-) : Criminologue américain, d'origine britannique. Il s'intéresse notamment aux déterminants neurogénétiques de la criminalité.

	RAINE, A., VENABLES, P.H. & WILLIAMS, M. (1990). Relationships between central and autonomic measures of arousal at age 15 years and criminality at age 24 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 1003-1007.
	RAINE, A., BUCHSBAUM, M. & LACASSE, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by Positron Emission Tomography. Biological Psychiatry, 42 (6), 495-508. [PDF]
	RAINE, A. (2002). The biological basis of crime. In J.Q. Wilson & J. Peetrsilia (Eds.), Crime : Public policies for crime control (pp. 43-74). Oakland, California : ICS Press. [PDF]
	RAINE, A. (2011). An amygdala structural abnormality common to two sub-types of conduct disorder : A neurodevelopmental conundrum. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 569-571. [PDF]
	RAINE, A., FUNG A.L. & LAM, B.Y.H. (2011). Peer victimization partially mediates the schizotypy - aggression relationship in children and adolescents. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 937-945. [PDF]

Rainey David W. ( ) : Psychologue américain et spécialiste de l'étude du sport, notamment du baseball.

	RAINEY, D.W. & LARSEN, J.D. (1988). Balls, strikes, and norms : Rule violations and normative rules among baseball umpires. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, 75-80. [PDF]
	RAINEY, D., SANTILLI, N. & FALLON, K. (1992). Development of athletes conceptions of sport officials authority Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, 392-440. [PDF]
	RAINEY, D. (1994). Magnitude of stress experienced by baseball and softball umpires. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 79 (1), 255-258.
	RAINEY, D. (1995). Sources of stress among baseball and softball umpires baseball teams beaten by jet lag. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 7 (1), 1-10.
	RAINEY, D.W. (1999). Sources of stress, burnout, and intention to terminate among bsketball referees. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22 (4), 578-590. [PDF]

Raison : Le mot a deux acceptions complémentaires : a) Au sens large, la raison est la capacité de discernement (raisonnement logique) et d'analyse logique de la réalité sous toutes ses formes. En principe, cette capacité de discernement permet à l'individu de faire les bon choix et d'agir en conséquence. La raison est donc "cette petite lumière qui guide nos pas dans la nuit". Raison, raisonnement et conscience. = lucidité. b) Cette capacité conduit un individu à prendre conscience des «causes» qui «se cache» derrière les phénomènes que l'on cherche à comprendre. Dans certains cas, ces raisons ou «causes invoquées ou percues» correspondent à des causes réelles; dans d'autres cas, elles ne sont que de pures inventions, parfois sans lien avec la réalité. C'est pourquoi on ne considère pas «raison» et «causes» comme synonymes. Reason.

	a
	WHITEHEAD, A.N. (1929). The function of reason. Princeton : Princeton University Press.	HUMPHREY, N. (1996). The bounds of reason. Prospect, 34-37.
	DAVIDSON, D. (1963). Actions reasons and causes. Journal of Philosophy, 60, 685-700.	BONJOUR, L. (1998). In defense of pure reason. Cambridge University Press.
	FEYERBAND, P.K. (1989). Farewell to reason. Verso. / Adieu la raison. Paris : Seuil.	CLARK, A. (2001). Reasons, robots and the extended mind. Mind & Language, 16, 121-145. [PDF]
	FUMERTON, R. (1990). Reason and morality. Ithaca : Cornell University Press.
	PAGELS, H. (1990). Les rêves de la raison. Paris : InterEditions.	THOMPSON, V.A., TURNER, J.P. & PENNYCOOK, G. (2011). Choosing between intuition and reason : The role of metacognition in initiating analytic thinking. Cognitive Psychology, 63, 107-140. [PDF]
	MARKOVITS, H. & SAVARY, F. (1992). Pragmatic schemas and selection task : To reason or not reason. The Quartely Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A, 133-148.
	SHAFIR, E., SIMONSON, I. & TVERSKY, A. (1993). Reason-based choice. Cognition, 49, 11-36. [PDF]
	Voir aussi Choix et Conscience
	b
		Voir aussi Cause et Attribution

Raison (Perdre) : Voir Folie, Trouble mental et Pathologie. Lost my mind.

Raison d'être : Ensemble des raisons qu'on groupe se donne et promeut pour justifier son existence, ses fonctions ou ses décisions. Il est à noter que cette raison d'être peut s'écarter, parfois significativement, des objectifs d'un groupe formel ou d'une organisation. Raison d'être et objectif partagé.

Raisonnement : Fonction de la pensée, qui traite l'information - parfois de façon logique - dans le but de trouver une solution à un problème, émettre une hypothèse, tester la cohérence d'une théorie, etc. Il existe deux grands types de raisonnement : par déduction ou par induction.Raisonnement, habileté cognitive et argument. Reasoning, reasoning abilities, argumentation, rational thought.

Types de raisonnement
Raisonnement par abduction	Raisonnement dialectique	Raisonnement moral
Raisonnement analogique	Raisonnement contrefactuel	Raisonnement par analogie
Raisonnement bayesien	Raisonnement fallacieux	Raisonnement par syllogisme
Raisonnement binaire	Raisonnement inductif	Raisonnement scientifique
Raisonnement causal	Raisonnement intuitif	Raisonnement statistique
Raisonnemement circulaire	Raisonnement juridique	Raisonnement tendancieux
Raisonnement conditionnel	Raisonnement logico-mathématique	Raisonnement téléologique
Raisonnemement déductif	Raisonnement logico-discursif	Deux systèmes/types de raisonnement

	BINET, A. (1907). La psychologie du raisonnement. Paris : Félix Alcan.	SUN, R. (1995). Robust reasoning : integrating rule-based and similarity-based reasoning. Artificial Intelligence, 75 (2), 241-296.
	PIAGET, J. (1924/72). Judgment and reasoning in the child. Savage, MD : Littlefield-Adams.	HOLYOAK, K.J. & CHENG, P.W. (1995). Pragmatic reasoning with a point of view. Thinking & Reasoning, 1, 289-313.
	NOELTING, G. (1961). Quelques aspects de la genèse du raisonnement mathematique chez l'enfant d'après les expériences de J. Piaget. Springer.	MARKOVITS, H., VENET, M., JANVEAU-BRENNAN, G., MALFAIT, N., PION, N. & VADEBONCOEUR, I. (1996). Reasoning in young children : Fantasy and information retrieval. Child Development, 67, 2857-2872.
	INHELDER, B. & PIAGET J. (1943). Diagnostic du raisonnement chez les débiles mentaux. Paris : Delachaux & Niestlé.	EVANS St.B.T. & OVER, D.E. (1996). Rationality and reasoning. Hove, U.K. : Psychology Press.
	WASON, P.C. (1966). Reasoning. In B. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth : Penguin.	SLOMAN, S.A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3-22.
		RICHARDSON, R.C. (1996). The prospects for an evolutionary psychology : Human language and human reasoning. Minds & Machines 6, 541-557.
	WASON, P.C. (1968). Reasoning about a rule. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20 (3), 273-281.	TODOROV, A. (1997). Another look at reasoning experiments : Rationality, normative models and conversational factors. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 27, 387-417. [PDF]
	WASON, P.C. (1969). Regression in reasoning ? British Journal of Psychology, 60, 471-480.	GERBRANDY, J. & GROENVELD, W. (1997). Reasoning about information change. Journal of Logic, Language & Information, 6, 147-196.
	WASON, P.C. & SHAPIRO, D. (1971). Natural and contrived experience in a reasoning problem. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 23 (1), 63-71.	GOSWAMI, U., LEEVERS, H., PRESSLEY, S. & WHEELWRIGHT, S. (1998). Causal reasoning about pairs of relations and analogical reasoning in young children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16, 553-568.
		CHAPELL, M. & OVERTON, W.F. (1998). Development of logical reasoning in the context of parental style and test anxiety. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44, 141-156.
	BRAINE, M.D.S. (1978). On the relation between the natural logic of reasoning and the standard logic. Psychological Review, 85, 1-21.	STANOVICH, K.E. & WEST, R.F. (1998). Individual differences in rational thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology : General, 127, 161-188.
	HUTTENLOCHER, J., HIGGINS, E.T. & CLARK, H.H. (1972). On reasoning, congruence, and other matters. Psychological Review, 79 (5), 420-427.	MARKOVITS, H., FLEURY, M.-L., QUINN, S. & VENET, M. (1998). Conditional reasoning and the structure of semantic memory. Child Development, 64 (3), 742-755.
	WASON, P.C. & JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. (1972). Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press.	EMBRETSON, S. (1998). A cognitive design system approach to generating valid tests : Application to abstract reasoning. Psychological Methods, 3, 380-396.
		MUELLER, U., SOKOL, B. & OVERTON, W.F. (1999). Developmental sequences in class reasoning and propositional reasoning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 74, 69-106.
		PENG, K. & NISBETT, R.E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psyhologist, 54, 741-754.
	HUTTENLOCHER, J., HIGGINS, E.T. & CLARK, H.H. (1972). On reasoning, congruence, and other matters. Psychological Review, 79 (5), 420-427.	JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. (1999). Deductive reasoning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 109-135. [PDF]
	JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N., LEGRENZI, P. & LEGRENZI, M.S. (1972). Reasoning and a sense of reality. British Journal of Psychology, 63, 395-400.	TOHILL, J.M. & HOLYOAK, K.J. (2000). The impact of anxiety on analogical reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 6, 27-40.
	COLLINS, A.M., WARNOCK, E.H., AIELLO, N. & MILLER, M.L. (1975). Reasoning from incomplete knowledge. In D. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding (pp. 383-415). New York : Academic Press.	HOUDÉ, O. (2000). Inhibition and cognitive development : object, number, categorization and reasoning. Cognitive Development, 15 (1), 63-73.
	STERNBERG, R.J. (1977). Component processes in analogical reasoning. Psychological Review, 84 (4), 353-378.	STANOVICH, K.E. & WEST, R.F. (2000). Individual diifferences in reasoning : implications for the rationality debate. Behaviorial & Brain Sciences, 23, 645-665. [PDF]
		MOUTIER, S. (2000). Deductive reasoning and experimental matching-bias inhibition training in school children. Current Psychology of Cognition, 19, 429-452.
	FULLER, R.G., KARPLUS, R. & LAWSON, A.E. (1977). Can physics develop reasoning ? Physics Today, 30 (2), 23-28. [PDF]	RIPS, L.J. (2001). Reasoning imperialism. In R. Elio (Ed.), Common sense, reasoning, and rationality (pp. 215-235). Oxford, England : Oxford University Press.
		FUJIMURA, N. (2001). Facilitating children's proportional reasoning : A model of reasoning processes and effects of intervention on strategy change. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 589-603.
		POLITZER, G. & CARLES, L. (2001). Belief revision and uncertain reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 7, 217-234.
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Voir aussi Rationnalité, Fonction exécutive et Habileté cognitive

Raisonnement (biais) : Voir Biais. Bias in judgment.

Raisonnement (Deux systèmes) : Two systems of reasoning, dual-process models, Dual-process accounts of reasoning.

	EVANS J. St.B.T. BARSTON, J.L. & POLLARD, P. (1983). On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 11, 295-306.	DE NEYS, W. (2006). Dual processing in reasoning : two systems but one reasoner. Psychological Science, 17 (5), 428-433. [PDF]
	SLOMAN, S.A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3-22.	EVANS J. St.B.T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. The Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255-278. [PDF]
	SMITH, E.R. & DeCOSTER, J. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology : conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 4 (2), 108-131.	EVANS J. St.B.T. (2009).How many dual-process theories do we need ? One, two, or many ? In J. St.B.T. Evans & K. Frankish (Eds.), In two minds : Dual processes and beyond (pp. 33-54). Oxford, England : Oxford University Press.
	RIPS, L.J. (2001). Two kinds of reasoning. Psychological Science, 12, 129-134. [PDF]
	SLOMAN, S.A. (2002). Two systems of reasoning. In Heuristics and biases : The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 379-398). Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press.	STANOVICH, K.E, WEST, R.F. & TOPLAK, M.E. (2011). The complexity of developmental predictions from dual process models. Developmental Review, 31, 103-118.
	EVANS J. St.B.T. (2003). In two minds : Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454-459.	TOPLAK, M.E., WEST, R.F. & STANOVICH, K.E. (2014). Rationality, intelligence, and the defining features of Type I and Type 2 processing. In J.W. Sherman, B. Gawronski & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories of the social mind (pp. 80-91). New York : Guilford Press.
	Voir aussi Raisonnement, Syllogisme et Biais de croyance

Raisonnement abductif : Abduction.

	ROZEBOOM, W.W. (1997). Good science is abductive, not hypothetico-deductive. In L. Harlow, S.A. Mulaik & J.H. Steiger (Eds.), What if there were no significance tests ? New Jersey : Erlbaum.
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement analogique : Voir Raisonnement par analogie et Analogie. Analogical reasoning.

Raisonnement bayesien : Forme de raisonnement statistique qui repose sur le théorème de bayes. Bayesian reasoning, bayesian interpretation .

Bayesien
Analyse bayesienne	Modèle bayesien	Théorème de Bayes
Inférence bayesienne	Statistique bayesienne	Thomas Bayes

	EDWARDS, W., LINDMAN, H. & SAVAGE, L.J. (1963). Bayesian statistical inference in psychological research. Psychological Review, 70, 193–-242.
	PRATT, J.W. (1965). Bayesian interpretation of standard inference statements. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 27 (2), 169-203.
	BRASE, G.L. (2008). Frequency interpretation of ambiguous statistical information facilitates Bayesian reasoning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 284-289.
	WETZELS, R. & WAGENMAKERS, E.-J. (2010). Exemplary introduction to Bayesian statistical inference. Book review of "Bayesian modeling using Win- BUGS. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 54, 466-469.
	Voir aussi Bayes, Modèle bayesien et Statistique bayesienne

Raisonnement binaire : Raisonnement de type Si non A, donc B. En En d'autres termes, si ce n'est pas blanc (A), c'est nécessairement noir (B). EX: Si un cours est populaire, alors qu'un autre qui se donne au même moment se vide (A), on en déduit donc que s'il se vide parce qu'il est de mauvaise qualité (B). Ici toute autre explication (C à Z) est exclue du raisonnement. Il n'y a pas de nuances possibles, de position intermédiaire, c'est un ou l'autre, blanc ou noir; rien entre les deux. EX: Le cours moins populaire n'est pas forcément de mauvaise qualité; il peut-être tout simplement moins intéressant que le premier (C); si le premier n'était pas disponible, le second se remplirait. Si elle parvient parfois à saisir certains phénomènes simples, cette forme de a href="definitionsp.htm#pensee">pensée . échoue totalement à appréhender la complexité. et les variations de la réalité. s = Si non A, donc B. = raisonnement simpliste, pensée simpliste, pensée linéaire. Binary thought.

		Voir aussi Pensée

Raisonnement causal : Causal reasoning.

	FRYE, D., ZELAZO, P.D., BROOKS, P. & SAMUELS, M. (1996). Inference and action in early causal reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 32, 120-131.
		Voir aussi Cause et Causalité

Raisonnement circulaire : Circular reasoning.

	RIPS, L.J. (2002). Circular reasoning. Cognitive Science, 26, 767-795. [PDF]
	BAUM, L.A., DANOVITCH, J.H. & KEIL, F.C. (2008). Children's sensitivity to circular explanation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 100, 46-155. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement conditionnel : Raisonnement de type si X, donc Y. = Si donc, Si donc, alors, Si alors donc. Conditional reasoning.

	MARCUS, S.L. & RIPS, L.J. (1979). Conditional reasoning. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 18, 199-223.	MULLER, U., OVERTON, W.F. & REENE, K. (2001). Development of conditional reasoning : A longitudinal study. Journal of Cognition & Development, 2, 27-49.
	O'BRIEN, D. & OVERTON, W.F. (1980). Conditional reasoning following contradictory evidence : A developmental analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30, 44-61	MARKOVITS, H. & BARROUILLET, P. (2002). The development of conditional reasoning : A mental model account. Developmental Review, 22 (1), 5-36. [PDF]
	O'BRIEN, D. & OVERTON, W.F. (1982). Conditional reasoning and the competence-performance issue : A developmental analysis of a training task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 34, 274-290
	MARKOVITS, H. (1984). Awareness of the "possible" as a mediator of formal thinking in conditional reasoning problems. British Journal of Psychology, 75, 367-376.	QUINN, S. & MARKOVITS, H. (2002). Conditional reasoning with causal premises : Evidence for a retrieval model. Thinking & Reasoning, 8, 179-191.
	MARKOVITS, H. & VACHON, R. (1990). Conditional reasoning, representation and level of abstraction. Developmental Psychology, 26, 942-951.	OBERAUER, K. & WILHELM, O. (2003). The meaning(s) of conditionals : Conditional probabilities, mental models, and personal utilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 29 (4), 680-693.
	MARKOVITS, H. (1993). The development of conditional reasoning : A piagetian reformulation of the theory of mental models. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly : Invitational issue on the Development of Rationality & Critical Thinking, 39 (1), 133-160.	HADJICHRISTIDIS, C., HANDLEY, S.J., SLOMAN, S.A., EVANS, J.St.B.T., OVER, D.A. & STEVENSON, R. (2007). Iffy beliefs : conditional thinking and belief change. Memory & Cognition, 35, 2052-2059.
	QUINN, S. & MARKOVITS, H. (1998). Conditional reasoning, causality, and the structure of semantic memory : Strength of association as a predictive factor for content effects. Cognition, 68 B, 93-101.	MARKOVITS, H. & LORTIE-FORGUES, H. (2011). Conditional reasoning with false premises facilitates the transition between familiar and abstract reasoning. Child Development, 82 (2), 646-660.
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement contrefactuel : Raisonnement qui consiste à envisager les «possibles scénarios» d'une situation réelle, en remplaçant la version réelle des faits par une version alternative, contaire à ces faits. Cette version alternative peut être plus agréable ou «noires» que la version originale. EX : Que ce serait-il passé si l'Archi-duc Ferdinand d'Autriche avait emprunté un itinéraire différent le jour de son assasinat ? Serait-il mort ? Le première Guerre Mondiale aurait-elle été déclenchée ? (= possible). = Que serait-il arrivé si... Counterfactual thinking.

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	GLEICHER, F., KOST, K.A., BAKER, S.M., STRATHMAN, A. J., RICHMAN, S.Z. & SHERMAN, S.J. (1990). The role of counterfactual thinking in judgments of affect. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 284-295.	BYRNE, R.M.J. & McELENEY, A. (2000). Counterfactual thinking about actions and failures to act. Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory & Cognition 26,1318-1331.
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		BYRNE, R.M.J. (2016). Counterfactual thought. Review of Psychology, 67 (1), 135-157.
		BECK, S. & RAFETSEDER, E. (2019). Are counterfactuals in and about time ? Commentary on Hoerl & McCormack. Behavioral & Brain Science,
	BYRNE, R.M.J. & TASSO, A. (1999). Deductive reasoning with factual, possible, and counterfactual conditionals. Memory & Cognition, 27 (4), 726-740.	BECK S.R. (2020). The subject of children's counterfactual thoughts. Psychology of Consciousness : Theory, Research, & Practice, 7 (4), 340-350.
		NYHOUT, A. & GAENA, P. (2021). Scientific reasoning and conterfactual in development. In Advances in Child Development &behavior, 61, 223-249. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Pensée et Alternative

Raisonnement critique : Voir Pensée critique. Critical thinking.

Raisonnement déductif : Forme de raisonnement qui s'appuie sur la logique, et sur lequel sont construites de nombreuses théories scientifiques. Raisonnement hypothético-déductif, formalisme et tâche de Wason. = déduction, raisonnement logico-mathématique, raisonnement hypothético-déductif, raisonnement de haut en bas. ( ): modus ponens, modus tollens, syllogisme. Deductive reasoning, deductive logic, Hypothetico-deductivism, mathematico-deductive, formal reasoning, reasoning.

Type de raisonnement déductif
Modus tollens	Modus ponens	Syllogisme

	WILKINS, M.C. (1928). The effect of changed material on the ability to do formal reasoning. Archives of Psychology, 16 (102), 1-83.	MOUTIER, S. (2000). Deductive reasoning and experimental matching-bias inhibition training in school children. Current Psychology of Cognition, 19, 429-452.
		MÜLLER, U., OVERTON, W.F. & REENE, K. (2001). The development of deductive reasoning : A longitudinal study. Journal of Cognition & Development, 2, 27-50.
	HULL, C.L., HOVLAND, C., ROSS, R.T., HALL, M., PERKINS, D.T. & FITCH, F.B. (1940). Mathematico-deductive theory of rote learning : A study in scientific methodology. New Haven, NJ : Yale University Press.	EVANS J. St.B.T. (2002). Logic and human reasoning : An assessment of the deduction paradigm. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 978-996.
	HAWKINS, J., PEA, R.D., GLICK, J. & SCRIBNER, S. (1984). Nerds that laugh don't like mushrooms : Evidence for deductive reasoning by preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 20, 584-594.	GOLDFARB, W. (2003). Deductive logic. Indianapolis, IN : Hacket.
	LAWSON, A.E. (1985). A review of research on formal reasoning and science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 22 (7), 569-617. [PDF]	NEWSTEAD, S.E. (2003). Can natural language semantics explain syllogistic reasoning ? Cognition, 90, 193-199.
	GRÜNBAUM, A. & SALMON, W.C. (Eds.) (1988). The limitations of deductivism. Berkeley, CA : University of California Press.	MARKOVITS, H. (2004). The development of deductive reasoning. In R.J. Sternberg & J.P. Leighton (Eds.), The nature of reasoning (pp. 313-338). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
	NEWSTEAD, S.E. (1989). Interpretational errors in syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Memory & Language, 28, 78-91.	NEWSTEAD, S.E. HANDLEY, S.J., HARLEY, C., WRIGHT, H. & FARRELLY, D. (2004). Individual differences in deductive reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57A (1), 33-60.
	VON FERSEN, L., WYNNE, C.D.L., DELIUS, J.D. & STADDON, J.E.R. (1990). Deductive reasoning in pigeons. Naturwissenschaften, 77, 548-549.	HALFORD, G.S. & ANDREWS, G. (2004). The development of deductive reasoning : How important is complexity ? Thinking & Reasoning, 10, 123-145.
	LAWSON, A.E., MCELRATH, C.B., BURTON, M.S., JAMES, B.D., DOYLE, R.P., WOODWARD, S.L., KELLERMAN, L. & SNYDER, J.D. (1991). Hypothetico-deductive reasoning skill and concept acquisition : Testing a constructivist hypothesis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28, 953-970.	LEIGHTON, J.P. (2005). Teaching and assessing deductive reasoning skills. Journal of Experimental Education, 74, 109-136.
	GEMES, K. (1993). Hypothetico-deductivism, content, and the natural axiomatization of theories. Philosophy of Science, 60 (3), 477-487.
	POLK, T.A. & NEWELL, A. (1995). Deduction as verbal reasoning. Psychological Review, 102, 533-566.	MARKOVITS, H. & THOMPSON, V. (2008). Different developmental patterns of simple deductive and probabilistic inferential reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 36 (6), 1066-1078. [PDF]
	FOLTZ, C., OVERTON, W.F. & RICCO, P. (1995). Proof construction : Adolescent development from inductive to deductive problem solving strategies. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 179-195.
	GEMES, K. (1998).Hypothetico-deductivism : the current state of play. Erkenntnis, 49 (1), 1-20.	ROTELLO, C.M. & HEIT, E. (2009). Modeling the effects of argument length and validity on inductive and deductive reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 35, 1317-1330.
	NEWSTEAD, S.E. & GRIGGS, R.A. (1999). Premise misinterpretation and syllogistic reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A, 1057-1075.	HEIT, E. & ROTELLO, C.M. (2010). Relations between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 36, 805-812.
	JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. (1999). Deductive reasoning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 109-135. [PDF]
	Voir aussi Syllogisme, Raisonnement inductif et Raisonnement

Raisonnement dialectique : Voir Dialectique.

Raisonnement disjonctif : Disjunctive reasoning.

	TOPLAK, M.E. & STANOVICH, K.E. (2002). The domain specificity and generality of disjunctive reasoning : Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 197-209.
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement fallacieux : Voir biais. Bias

Raisonnement formel : Formel reasoning.

	POLLACK, R.D., OVERTON, W.F., ROSENFELD, A. & ROSENFELD, R. (1995). Formal reasoning in late adulthood : The role of semantic content and metacognitive strategy. Journal of Adult Development, 2, 1-14.
	TAKAHASHI, M. & OVERTON, W.F. (1996). Formal reasoning in Japanese older adults : The role of metacognitive strategy, task content, and social factors. Journal of Adult Development, 3, 81-91.
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement idéologique : Ideological reasoning.

	TETLOCK, P.E. (1986). A value pluralism model of ideological reasoning. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 50, 819-827. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement inductif : En logique, forme de raisonnement qui consiste à formuler une proposition générale à partir des faits ou des régularités observées. L'induction s'appuie sur l'abstraction des propriétés des faits/événements. Raisonnement inductif et déductif. = raisonnement de bas en haut, R, raisonnement par induction. /déduction. Inductive reasoning, induction, inductive inference, inductive logic.

	THILLY, F. (1903). The theory of induction. The Philosophical Review, 12 (4), 401-411.	WHITEBREAD, D. (1996). The development of children's strategies on an inductive reasoning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66 (1), 1-21.
	FISHER, R.A. (1935). The logic of inductive inference. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series 98, 39-54.
	CARNAP, R. (1946). Remarks on induction and truth. Philosophy & Phenomenological Research, 6, 590-602.	POPPER, K. (1998). The problem of induction. In M. Curd & J.A. Cover (Eds.), Philosophy of science : The central issues (pp. 430-431). New York : W.W. Norton.
	WILLIAMS, D.C. (1947). The ground of induction. Cambridge : Harvard University Press.	TOMIC, W. & KINGMA, J. (1998). Accelerating intelligence development through inductive reasoning training. Advances in Cognition & Educational Practice, 5, 291-305.
	CARNAP, R. (1952). The continuum of inductive methods. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.	LIPTON, P. (1998). Induction. In M. Curd & J.A. Cover (Eds.), Philosophy of science : The central issues (pp. 412-425). New York : W.W. Norton.
	FEIBLEMAN, J.K. (1953). On the theory of induction. Philosophy & Phenomenological Research, 14 (3), 332-342.	MUSGRAVE, A.E. (1999). How to do without inductive logic. Science & Education, 8, 395-412.
	ROZEBOOM, W.W. (1961). Ontological induction and the logical typology of scientific variables. Philosophy of Science, 28, 337-377. [PDF]
	RESCHER, N. (1961). Non-deductive rules of inference and the problems in the analysis of inductive reasoning. Synthese, 13, 242-251.
	FEIBLEMAN, J.K. (1962). On the theory of induction. Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague.	BATENS, D. & HAESAERT, L. (2001). On classical adaptive logics of induction. Logique et Analyse, 173-175, 255-290.
	CAMPBELL, K. (1963). One form of scepticism about induction. Analysis, 23 (4), 80-83.
	SOLOMONOFF, R.J. (1964). A formal theory of inductive inference. Information & Control, 7, 1-22, 224-254.	HACKING, I. (2001). Introduction to probability and inductive logic. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
	MEDAWAR, P. (1969). Induction and intuition in scientific thought. London : Methuen.	NORTON, J. (2003). A material theory of induction. Philosophy of Science, 70, 647-670. [PDF]
	KYBURG, H.E. (1970). Probability and inductive logic. London : Macmillan.	CAMPBELL, J. & FRANKLIN, J. (2004). Randomness and Induction. Synthese, 138, 79-99.
	STEMMER, N. (1971). Three problems in induction. Synthese, 23, 287-308.	SLOUTSKY, V.M. & FISHER, A.V. (2004). Induction and categorization in young children : A similarity-based model. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 133 (2), 166-188.
	HUESMANN, L.R. & CHENG, C. (1973). A model for the induction of mathematical functions. Psychological Review, 80, 126-138. [PDF]	MUSGRAVE, A.E. (2004). How Popper [might have] solved the problem of induction. Philosophy, 79, 19-31.
	RESCHER, N. (1980). An essay on the justification of inductive reasonning. University of Pittsburgh Press.	NORTON, J. (2005). A little survey of induction. in P. Achinstein (Ed.), Scientific evidence : Philosophical theories and applications (pp. 9-34). Johns Hopkins University Press. [PDF]
	GELMAN, S.A. & MARKMAN, E.M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. Cognition, 23, 183-209. [PDF]	MURPHY, G.L. & ROSS, B.H. (2005). The two faces of typicality in category-based induction. Cognition, 95, 175-200. [PDF]
	STOVE, D.C. (1986). The rationality of induction. Oxford : Oxford University Press.	ZAMORA-BONILLA, J.P. (2006). Rhetoric, induction, and the free speech dilemma. Philosophy of Science, 73, 175-193.
	BONJOUR, L. (1986). A reconsideration of the problem of induction. Philosophical Topics, 14, 93-124.	BATENS, D. (2006). On a logic of induction. Logic & Philosophy of Science, 4 (1), 3-32.
	HARNAD, S. (1987). Category induction and representation. In S. Harnad (Ed.), Categorial perception (pp. 535-565). Cambridge University Press.	SHAFTO, P., KEMP, C., BONAWITZ, E.B., COLEY, J.D. & TENNBAUM, J.B. (2008). Inductive reasoning about causally transmitted properties. Cognition, 109 (2), 175-192.
	MILTON, J.R. (1987). Induction before Hume. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 38 (1), 49-74.	KEMP, C. & TENENBAUM, J.B. (2009). Structured statistical models of inductive reasoning. Psychological Review, 116 (4), 20-58. [PDF]
	WATKINS J.W.N. (1988). The pragmatic problem of induction. Analysis, 48, 18-20.	KHAN, W. & ULLAH, H. (2010). Scientific reasoning : A solution to the problem of induction. International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences, 10 (3), 49-53. [PDF]
	PETTIT, P. (1989). The backward induction paradox. Journal of Philsophy, 86 (4), 169-182. PDF]
	CHENG, P.W. & NOVICK, L.R. (1990). A probabilistic contrast model of causal induction. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 58, 545-567. [PDF]	CAROL, C.D. & CHENG, P.W. (2010). The Induction of hidden causes : Causal mediation and violations of independent causal influence. In S. Ohlsson & R. Catrambone (Eds.), Proceedings of the 32nd annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp. 913-918). Austin, TX : Cognitive Science Society.
	ARMSTRONG, D. (1991). What makes induction rational ? Dialogue, 30, 503-511.	NORTON, J. (2010). There are no universal rules for induction. Philosophy of Science, 77 (5), 765-777. [PDF]
	SLOMAN, S.A. & WISINIEWSKI, E.J. (1992). Extending the domain of feature-based models of property induction. In Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 355-359). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.	DE NEYS, W. & VANDERPUTTE, K. (2011). When less is not always more : stereotype knowledge and reasoning development. Developmental Psychology, 47, 432-441.
	LOPEZ, A., GELMAN, S.A. GUTHEIL, G. & SMITH, E.E. (1992). The development of category-based induction. Child Development, 63 (5), 1070-1090.	GODFREY-SMITH, P. (2011). Induction, samples, and kinds. In J. Campbell, M. O'Rourke & M. Slater (Eds.), Carving nature at its joints : Topics in contemporary philosophy. MIT Press. [PDF]
	CHENG, P.W. & NOVICK, L.R. (1992). Covariation in natural causal induction. Psychological Review, 99, 365-382. [PDF]	NORTON, J. (2014). A material dissolution of the problem of induction. Synthese, 191, 671-690. [PDF]
	SLOMAN, S.A. (1993). Feature-based induction. Cognitive Psychology, 25 (2), 231-280.	PERRET, P. (2015). Children's inductive reasoning : Developmental and educational perspectives. Journal of Cognitive Education & Psychology, 14 (3), 389-408. [PDF]
	FOLTZ, C., OVERTON, W.F. & RICCO, P. (1995). Proof construction : Adolescent development from inductive to deductive problem solving strategies. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 179-195.	URBANIAK, R. & BATENS, D. (2018). Induction. In S.O. Hansson & V.F. Hendricks (Eds.), Handbook of formal philosophy (pp. 105-130). Springer.
		Voir aussi Raisonnement déductif et Raisonnement

Raisonnement intuitif : Intuitive reasoning, naive theory.

	CUMMINS, D.D. (1995). Naive theories and causal deduction. Memory & Cognition, 23, 646-658.
	NORENZAYAN, A., SMITH, E.E., KIM, B.J. & NISBET, R.E. (2002). Cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning. Cognitive Science, 26, 653-684.
	LINDEMAN, M. (2011). Biases in intuitive reasoning and belief in complementary and alternative medicine. Psychology & Health, 26, 371-382. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement juridique : Legal reasoning.

	ELLSWORTH, P.C. (2005). Legal reasoning. In K. Holyoak & B. Morrison (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. (pp. 685-704). Cambridge University Press.
	ELLSWORTH, P.C. (2011). Legal reasoning and scientific reasoning. Alabama Law Review, 63 (4), 895-918. [PDF]
	Voir aussi Juge/jury et Raisonnement

Raisonnement logico-discursif : Reasoning.

	MUELLER, U., SOKOL, B. & OVERTON, W.F. (1999). Developmental sequences in class reasoning and propositional reasoning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 74, 69-106.

Raisonnement logico-mathématique : Mathematico-deductive theory, Logical reasoning.

	HULL, C.L., HOVLAND, C., ROSS, R.T., HALL, M., PERKINS, D.T. & FITCH, F.B. (1940). Mathematico-deductive theory of rote learning : A study in scientific methodology. New Haven, NJ : Yale University Press.
	CHAPELL, M.S. & OVERTON, W.F. (2002). Development of logical reasoning and the school performance of African American adolescents in relation to socioeconomic status, ethnic identity, and self-esteem. Journal of Black Psychology, 28, 295-317.
	WOOD, T., WILLIAMS, G. & McNEAL, B. (2006). Children's mathematical thinking in different classroom cultures. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 37, 222-255.
	OSBORNE, A.R. & REAGAN G.M. (2009). Logical reasoning : An educational goal. Theory into Practice, 12, 263-265.
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement moral : Raisonnement, jugement et développement moral. Moral reasoning.

	BUSSEY, K. & MAUGHAN, B. (1982). Gender differences in moral reasoning. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 42, 701-706.	CLOPTON, N.A. & SORELL, G.T. (1993). Gender differences in moral reasoning : Stable or situational ? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 85-101.
	WALKER, L.J. (1984). Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning : A critical review. Child Development, 55, 677-691.	CARLO, G., KOLLER, S.H., ISENBERG, N., DA SILVA, M.S. & FROLICH, C.B. (1996). A cross-national study on the relations among prosocial moral reasoning, gender role orientations, and prosocial behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 231-240. [PDF]
	ZEIDNER, M. & NEVO, B. (1987). The cross-cultural generalizability of moral reasoning research. International Journal of Psychology, 22, 315-330	HUMPHRIES, M.L., PARKER, B.L. & JAGERS, R.J. (2000). Predictors of moral reasoning among African American children : A preliminary study. Journal of Black Psychology, 26 (1), 51-64.
		STERELNY, K. (2010). Moral nativism : A sceptical response. Mind & Language, 25 (30), 279-297.
	WALKER, L.J. (1989). A longitudinal study of moral reasoning. Child Development, 60, 157-166.	SCARF, D., IMUTA, K., COLOMBO, M. & HAYNE, H. (2012). Social evaluation or simple Association ? Simple associations may explain moral rasoning in infants. PLOS One, 7 (8), 1-4. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Raisonnement

Raisonnement par analogie : Analogical reasoning.

	GENTNER, D. (1983). Structure mapping : A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155-170. [PDF]	GENTNER, D. BOWDLE B., WOLFF, P. & BORONAT, C. (2001). Metaphor is like analogy. In D. Gentner, K.J. Holyoak & B.N. Kokinov (Eds.), The analogical mind : Perspectives from cognitive science (pp. 199-253). Cambridge, MA : MIT Press. [PDF]
	GENTNER, D. (1989). The mechanisms of analogical learning. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity, analogy, and thought (pp. 199-241). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.	GENTNER, D. (2002). Analogical reasoning, psychology of. Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. London : Nature Publishing Group.
	GOSWAMI, U. (1991). Learning about spelling sequences - the role of onsets and rimes in analogies in reading. Child Development, 62 (5), 1110-1123.	SALVUCCI, D.D. & ANDERSON, J.R. (2001). Integrating analogical mapping and general problem solving : The path-mapping theory. Cognitive Science, 25, 67-110. [PDF]
	GOSWAMI, U. (1991). Analogical reasoning - what develops - a review of research and theory. Child Development, 62 (1), 1-22.	VISKONTAS, I.V., MORRISON, R.G., HOLYOAK, K.J., UMMEL, J.E. & KNOWLTON, B.J. (2004). Relational integration, inhibition and analogical reasoning in older adults. Psychology & Aging, 19, 581-591. [PDF]
	GOSWAMI, U. (1992). Analogical reasoning and conceptual complexity in cognitive-development - commentary. Human Development, 35 (4), 222-225.	LEECH, R., MARESCHAL, D. & COOPER, R. (2007). Relations as transformations : Implications for analogical reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60, 897-908. [PDF]
	SUNSTEIN, C. (1993). On analogical reasoning. Haward Law Review, 106, 741-791.	CHO, S., HOLYOAK, K.J. & CANNON, T.D. (2007). Analogical reasoning in working memory : Resources shared among relational integration, interference resolution, and maintenance. Memory & Cognition, 35, 1445-1455. [PDF]
	GOSWAMI, U. (1996). Analogical reasoning and cognitive development. Advances in Child Development & Behavior, 26, 91-138.	GENTNER, D. & FORBUS, K. (2011). Computational models of analogy. WIREs Cognitive Science, 2, 266-276. [PDF]
	BARNES, A. & THAGARD, P. (1997). Empathy and analogy. Dialogue : Canadian Philosophical Review, 36, 705-720. [LIRE]	GENTNER, D. & SMITH, L. (2012). Analogical reasoning. In V.S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (pp. 130-136). Oxford, UK : Elsevier. [PDF]
	GENTNER, D. & MARKMAN, A.B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52, 45-56. [PDF]	CHRISTIE, S. & GENTNER, D. (2014). Language helps children succeed on a classic analogy task. Cognitive Science, 38, 383-397. [PDF]
		Voir aussi Raisonnement et Analogie

a name="raisonnementparsyllogisme" id="raisonnementparsyllogisme">Raisonnement par syllogisme : Voir Syllogisme. Syllogistic reasoning, syllogistic inference.

Raisonnement scientifique : Ensemble des raisonnements de la pensée auxquels ont recours les scientifiques lors des diverses étapes de leur recherche pour découvrir un phénomène nouveau, poser un problème, formuler une hypothèse, analyser leurs données et interpréter les résultats de leur recherche. Tout raisonnement se décompose en arguments qui, généralement, en science, se fonde sur la logique (mais pas toujours). En science, un ensemble de concepts et d'arguments se nomme "théorie". Raisonnement, logique et pensée scientifique. Scientific reasoning, argumentation.

Raisonnements scientifiques
Raisonnement par induction	Raisonnement par déduction

	LEVINE, D.I. & LINN, M.C. (1977). Scientific reasoning ability in adolescence : Theoretical viewpoints and educational implications. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14, 371-384.	GORDON, H.R.D. (2001). American Vocational Education Research Association members' perceptions of statistical significance tests and other statistical controversies. Journal of Vocational Educational Research, 26 (2), 1-18.
	POPPER, K.R. (1984). La logique de la découverte scientifique. Paris : Payot.	HALLER, H. & KRAUSS, S. (2002). Misinterpretations of significance : A problem students share with their teachers ? Methods of Psychological Research, 7 (1), 1-120. [PDF]
	KHLAR, D. & DUNBAR, K. (1988). Dual Space search during scientific reasoning. Cognitive Science, 12, 1-48.	ZIMMERMAN, C. (2007). The development of scientific reasoning skills in elementary and middle school. Developmental Review, 27, 172-223.
	DUNBAR, K. (1995). How scientists really reason : Scientific reasoning in real-world laboratories. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of insight.London : Bradford. [PDF]	McCABE, D.P. & CASTEL, A.D. (2008). Seeing is believing : The effect of brain images on judgments of scientific reasoning. Cognition, 107, 343-352. [PDF]
	SCHAUBLE, L. (1996). The development of scientific reasoning in knowledge-rich contexts. Developmental Psychology, 32, 102-119.	BAO, L., CAI, T., KOENIG, K., FANG, K., HAN, J., WANG, J., LIU, Q., DING, L., CUI, L., LUO, Y., WANG, Y., LI, L. & WU, N. (2009). Learning and scientific reasoning. Science, 323, 586-587. [PDF]
		BRASE, G.L. (2009). Pictorial representations in statistical reasoning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23 (3), 369–381.
	SCHIMDT, F. (1996). Statistical significance testing and cumulative knowledge in psychology : Implications for the training of researchers. Psychological Methods, 1, 115- 129. [PDF]	KHAN, W. & ULLAH, H. (2010). Scientific reasoning : A solution to the problem of induction. International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences, 10 (3), 49-53. [PDF]
	NERSESSIAN, N.J. (1999). Model-based reasoning in conceptual change. In L. Magnani, N.J. Nersessian & P. Thagard (Eds.), Model-based reasoning in scientific discovery (pp. 5-22). New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.	ELLSWORTH, P.C. (2011). Legal reasoning and scientific reasoning. Alabama Law Review, 63 (4), 895-918. [PDF]
	Voir aussi Scientifique, Découverte, Créativité, Théorie, Logique et Pensée scientifique